Basic Grammar and Sentence Structure Guide

Grammar
Parts of Speech:	* Interjection * Verb * Adverb * Noun * Article * Conjunction * Adjective * Preposition * Pronoun
Sentences:	* Subject * Predicate * Phrases * Clauses * Kinds of Sentences * Sentence Purposes * Some Sentence Problems * * Transitional Phrases
Important Concepts:	* Voice * Point of View * Tense * Number * Parallel Structure * That and Which * Who and Whom
Punctuation:	* Comma * Hyphen * Dash * Colon * Semi-Colon
Style:	* Numbers Titles Names * Quotes
Miscellaneous:	* Problem Words Proofreading Symbols Page Format

Note: Familiarize yourself with this section during Weeks One and Two.

If you ever have trouble remembering the parts of speech, try using the name "Ivan A. Capp."

I	Interjection
V	Verb
A	Adverb
N	Noun
A	Article
C	Conjunction
A	Adjective
P	Pronoun
P	Preposition

Interjection: A word that expresses strong feelings or statements: Wow! Hello! Oh Boy!

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Verb: A word that expresses action or state of being. A sentence may have a main verb and a helping verb:

Example: Tom dances (main verb) the best of all my friends.
Example: Tom is (helping verb) dancing (main verb) with his girlfriend.

The helping verbs in English are forms of have, do and be:

have, has, had
do, does, did
be, am, is, are, was, were, being, been

Other helping verbs called "modals" are can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will and would.

Remember not to shift tense in either time (past, present or future) or number (singular or plural) when writing.

In addition, remember that gerunds and the infinitive form of the verb can be used as nouns.

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Adverb: A word that tells us more about a verb, an adjective or another adverb.

It can tell how: The man danced terribly.
It can tell where: The man danced there.
It can tell when: The man danced yesterday.
It can be used as an adjective: The extremely ugly man danced yesterday.

Remember, if you are modifying a verb, you need to use an adverb, not an adjective. Often--but not always--adverbs have an "ly" ending.

Incorrect Example: The car went quick (adjective) down the road.
Correct Example: The car went quickly down the road.
Incorrect Example: I told the nurse I felt good. (adjective)
Correct Example: I told the nurse I felt well.

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Noun: A word that names a person, place, thing or idea. Nouns can include:

Proper nouns:--the names of specific persons, places or things. They are always capitalized: Mary, San Francisco, Bill Clinton
All other nouns are common nouns. They are never capitalized: friend, teapot, house

Nouns can also be divided into concrete and abstract nouns.

Concrete nouns are specific and definite items: movie, the Taliban, cup, magazine
Abstract nouns are qualities and ideas: wisdom, happiness, terrorism, integrity

There are several other kinds of nouns that you should pay particular attention to in your writing because they may cause problems.

The first is the collective noun, which is generally considered singular, even though it is assumed to include many people. Some examples are: committee, class, company, government, group, organization and public. Pronouns that refer to these collective nouns should, thus, be singular.

Example: The class is going to attend a play and possibly a film.
Example: The voting public is often the biggest foe of budget increases.

You should also be aware of two kinds of words that may appear like verbs, but are actually nouns and can be used as the subject of a sentence. The gerund, or "-ing" form of a verb, serves as a noun:

Example: Skating is fun.

In the infinitive form, the verb is used as a noun:

Example: To skate is divine.

If you have a gerund or infinitive as a subject you must have a helping verb or you will have a sentence fragment.

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Article: A, An and The. Signals a noun is coming up.

Conjunction: A word that joins other words or parts of a sentence together.

Coordinating conjunctions connect grammatically equal elements. These conjunctions are used when writing compound sentences and include:

and

but

nor

for

yet

Correlative conjunctions are pairs of conjunctions that connect grammatically equal elements. These conjunctions include:

either/or

neither/nor

not only/but also

whether/or

both/and

Subordinating conjunctions introduce a subordinate clause. This means that a clause that begins with a subordinating conjunction cannot stand alone as an independent thought.

Incorrect Example: Mary walked out of the film when she spilled the soda. Although she liked the movie.
Correct Example: Although she liked the movie, Mary walked out of the theatre when she spilled the soda.
Incorrect Example: Since I wanted to save money. I made the decision to attend a community college.
Correct Example: Since I wanted to save money, I made the decision to attend a community college.

Common Subordinating Conjunctions
after although as as if, because before	even though if in order that in order to rather than	since so that than that though	unless until when where whether while

Conjunctive adverbs are adverbs used to indicate the relationship between independent clauses. The key word here is independent, which means you need to use a semi-colon if you want to use the clauses in the same sentence. If not, then you must write two separate sentences. Used incorrectly, conjunctive adverbs can lead to sentences with comma splices.

Conjunctive Adverbs
accordingly also anyway besides certainly consequently conversely	finally furthermore hence however incidentally indeed instead	likewise meanwhile moreover nevertheless next nonetheless otherwise	similarly specifically still subsequently then therefore thus

Incorrect Example: I decided to teach a course on the Titanic, therefore, I read many books about the ship this summer. (This is a comma splice, because you are using a comma to connect two independent thoughts.)
Correct Example: I decided to teach a course on the Titanic; therefore, I read many books about the ship this summer. (Semi-colons are used to connect two independent thoughts. See the Style Guide.)
Correct Example: I decided to teach a course on the Titanic. Therefore, I read many books about the ship this summer.

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Adjective: A word used to modify or describe a noun or pronoun. It usually answers one of these questions: Which one? What kind of? How many?

Mary bought a new cat. (Which one? The new one.)
Mary bought a new Siamese cat. (What kind? A Siamese.)
Mary bought three Siamese cats. (How many? Three)

Adjectives can be expressed in three degrees:

Positive: Cold, Nice
Comparative: Colder, Nicer
Superlative: Coldest, Nicest

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Preposition: A word that shows the relationship of a noun or pronoun to some other word in the sentence.

A preposition can show location: The car is outside the garage.
It can show direction: The car is going toward the ravine.
It can show time: Mary will arrive after the movie starts.
It can have other uses: The car started with a bang.

Common Prepositions
about above across after against along among around as at before behind	below beneath beside between beyond but by concerning considering despite down during except	for from in inside into like near next of off on onto opposite	out outside over past plus regarding respecting round since than through throughout	till to toward under underneath unlike until unto up upon with within without

One way to make your sentences more interesting is to add a prepositional phrase:

Simple Sentence: John said he likes to play basketball.
With Prepositional Phrase: John said he likes to play basketball at home and in leagues.

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Pronoun: A word that takes the place of a noun. When you write in the first person you use the subject pronouns I and we. The second person point of view utilizes the subject pronoun you, while the third person utilizes the subject pronouns he, she and they.

Possessive pronouns indicate ownership. They include: my, mine, your, yours, her, hers, his, its, our, ours, their and theirs.

Objective pronouns are used for direct or indirect objects. Therefore, they can never be the subject of a sentence. The objective case pronouns are: me, you, us, him, her and them.

Let me stress again, never begin a sentence with "me."

Wrong Example: Me and my friends had a great time the day we traveled to Darien Lake.
Corrected Example: My friends and I had a great time the day we traveled to Darien Lake. My best friend won a big stuffed animal that he gave to me. (In the first sentence, I is part of the subject. In the second sentence, me is the direct object.)

Indefinite Pronouns refer to nonspecific persons or things. They can be very tricky in writing, because they can always be singular, always plural, or either singular or plural depending on the sentence.

Correct Usage for Indefinite Pronouns
Usage	Universal	Some	Any	Negative
Always Singular	everybody everyone everything each either	somebody someone something somewhere	another anybody anyone anything anywhere	nobody no one nothing neither nowhere
Always Plural	***	both few many several	***	***
Can be either plural or singular, depending on the nouns to which they refer.	all	some enough more most such	any	none

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Parts of a Sentence

Note: Familiarize yourself with this section, beginning with Week Three.

The parts of speech are not the same thing as the parts of a sentence. The parts of a sentence refer to the ways these particular words are used in the body of a sentence. To have a complete sentence you only need two things: a subject and a predicate. The subject is what the sentence is about; the predicate is the grammatical name for the verb and its objects, complements and modifiers. Thus, the sentence, "I dance," is a complete sentence because it has both a subject and a predicate. However, language is much more complicated than that and sentences can be far more complex.

The following is a brief overview of various grammatical concepts. It by no way replaces a grammar book in terms of comprehensiveness.

Subject: The person, place, animal, thing or idea the sentence is about. The simple subject is always a noun or pronoun. The complete subject consists of the simple subject and all of its modifiers. A compound subject contains two or more simple subjects joined with a coordinating conjunction such as and or or. You can find the subject of the sentence in the independent clause. (See Kinds of Sentences.)

Predicate: The part of a sentence that says something about the subject. You must have a predicate to have a sentence. The key to a predicate is a verb, but the predicate can also include any objects, complements or modifiers.

Example: Brand-name, high-priced sneakers remain popular.
- Complete subject=brand-name, high-priced sneakers
- Simple subject=sneakers
- Predicate=remain popular

Example: Saddle shoes and go-go boots are not in style now.
- Complete subject=Saddle shoes and go-go boots
- Compound subject=Saddle shoes and go-go boots
- Predicate=are not in style now.

The subject and predicate can come in several different patterns:

Subject/verb
Example: Mary eats.
Subject/verb/subject complement
Example: Mary is hungry.
Subject/verb/direct object
Example: Mary serves the pie.
Subject/verb/indirect object/direct object
Example: Mary serves Tanya the pie.
Subject/verb/direct object/object complement
Example: Mary made Tanya happy.

Subject complements modify the subject.

Object Complements modify the object.

Direct and Indirect Objects are common uses for nouns and pronouns in sentences. A direct object receives the action of the verb directly:

Example: Carlos locked the coach in the gym.
Example: Martin Luther King Jr. fought injustice wherever he went.

An indirect object of the verb receives the action of the verb indirectly:

Example: Should I send David some extra money?

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Phrases are group of words that do not have a subject and verb. They act as a part of speech rather than a complete sentence. As such, they cannot stand alone but are necessary tools in writing. They include:

Prepositional Phrase: A group of words that begins with a preposition and ends with a. noun, which is known as the object of the preposition. Prepositional phrases most often act as adjectives or adverbs, and occasionally as nouns. In these sentences, In the previous sentences, "in the gym" and "wherever he went" are prepositional phrases. A full list of prepositions is available on this web page.
Verbal: A phrase that acts as a noun, adjective, or adverb. A verbal looks like a verb but doesn't act as a verb. The three kinds of verbal phrases are gerunds, infinitives, and participles.
- Gerund: A gerund always ends in -ing and always acts as a noun.
  Example: Dancing is enjoyable.. Her cooking is delicious.
- Infinitive: The verb form that begins with to. Infinitives can act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs.
  Example: To dance is enjoyable. (noun and subject of sentence)
  Example: He works hard to make money. (adverb modifying work)
  Example: To dance is enjoyable. (noun and subject of sentence.)
- Participial Phrase: The present participle is the -ing form of the verb (is sneezing; was sleeping). The past participle goes with have, and usually ends in -ed (have sneezed; have danced). A participle is the -ing or -ed part of the verb without its helper (sneezing, sleeping, sneezed, danced, slept). A participial phrase always acts as an adjective, usually describing the subject.
  Example: John, waiting in line at the movies, was angry.

Appositives describe a noun or pronoun. In form they are nouns or noun equivalents:

Example: John, an 18-year-old freshman, said he likes to play basketball.
Example: Mary, the red-haired chemistry major, is also from Camillus. John said he likes to play basketball.

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Clauses are groups of words that have a subject and a verb. An independent clause can stand by itself as a sentence:

Independent Clause Example: The man fell.

A dependent or subordinate clause cannot stand by itself as a sentence.

Dependent Clause Example: Because he slipped on a banana peel, the man fell.

Dependent or subordinate clauses may act as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs:

Noun clauses
Example: I can't explain what he did.
Adjective clauses
Example: The man, who was is pain, was lying on the floor.
Adverb clauses
Example: John was angry when Mary stood him up at the movies.

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Kinds of Sentences

Sentences are made up of clauses, which come in two varieties: independent and subordinate (or dependent). An independent clause has a subject and predicate (a verb and all its complements and modifiers) and can stand alone. A subordinate clause is like a sentence, in that it has a subject and verb, but it cannot stand alone as a complete thought.

1. A simple sentence has one independent clause and no subordinate clause. All of the sentence patterns described in the previous section are simple sentences.

Mary ate the pie.

2. A compound sentence has two or more independent clauses with no subordinate clause. The independent clauses are joined by a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon. (See conjunctions.)

Mary ate the pie and Tanya ate the cake.
Mary ate the pie; Tanya ate the cake.

3. A complex sentence has one independent clause and one or more subordinate clauses that cannot stand alone.

If Mary ate all the pie, Tanya had to eat the cake.
Although Mary ate the pie, she really preferred the cake.

4. A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause.

Mary ate all the pie and Tanya ate all the cake, so John ended up with no dessert at all.

Punctuating Sentences with Subordinate Clauses

1. If you begin a sentence with a subordinate clause, use a comma after the subordinate clause:

When they arrived, we cheered the tall ships.

2. In general, you do not need a comma before a subordinating conjunction that appears toward the end of the sentence, particularly if it begins a restrictive clause. If the restrictive clause were removed, the meaning of the sentence would differ greatly.

We cheered the tall ships when they arrived.
Not many people paid attention to the scandal because Bill Clinton had high ratings. (The later information is crucial to understanding the first part of the sentence.)
Please make the copies of the final report today, because I am leaving for a business meeting tomorrow morning. (The second clause can be a separate sentence, so it is nonrestrictive.)

3. If the subordinating conjunction is though or although, do use a comma before it:

We cheered the tall ships, although their sails were not up.
Bill Clinton had high ratings, though he was immersed in scandal.

4. Do not use a comma before as, while, or since if you mean "when."

We cheered the tall ships as they came into the harbor.

5. Do use a comma before as or since if you mean "why" and before while if you mean "whereas."

We cheered the tall ships, as they were a symbol of past greatness.

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Sentence Purposes

In terms of function, sentences can be classified four ways:

Declarative--Makes a statement.
Example: John goes to the store.
A declarative sentence is the most common sentence in writing. Written in the active voice, using parallel structure and consistency in tense, declarative sentences are the hallmark of good expository writing.
Interrogative--Asks a question
Example: John, are you going to the store?
We ask each other many questions as part of normal conversation or in class. In expository writing, the use of the interrogative is considered to be a rhetorical question--a question posed by the writer that he or she fully intends on answering.
Rhetorical Question Example: Why aren't more people up in arms about Bill Clinton's behavior with Monica Lewinsky? Perhaps because the scandal reveals nothing new about the President. We all heard about Gennifer Flowers and Paula Corbin Jones before the election and many people still voted for him.
The interrogative sentence or rhetorical question should be used sparingly in your writing and should not be used to propel your essay forward at every point in your organization.
Imperative--Gives a command
Example: Go to the store!
The imperative is always considered to be written in the second person point of view, because "you" (the reader of the sentence or the recipient of the message) is understood to be the subject of the sentence. You don't have to write out "You have to go the store" for the person to know what you are saying. The imperative is always considered to be in the active voice.

Exclamatory--Expresses strong feeling.
Example: I need money!
While we often talk in exclamatory sentences when speaking to our friends and family, we usually don't write using exclamatory sentences. They are best used for dramatic highlights in your writing, since they can lose their effectiveness when they are overused.

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Some Sentence Problems

The most common sentence structure problems are comma splices, fused sentences and fragments.

A comma splice is when the writer inserts a comma between two complete sentences. Usually a period would be more appropriate, although occasionally a semi-colon may be effective.

Example: Mary ate the pie, Tanya ate the cake.

A fused sentence is when the writer combines two complete sentences without any punctuation. This could also be called a "run-on" sentence. Usually a period is needed, although occasionally a semi-colon may be effective.

Incorrect Example: Mary ate the pie Tanya ate the cake.
Correct Example: Mary ate the pie. Tanya ate the cake.
Correct Example: Mary ate the pie; Tanya ate the cake. (Be forewarned: most people do not know how to use semi-colons, so avoid using them unless you are absolutely sure.)

A sentence fragment is missing either the subject or predicate. A common cause of fragments is using a gerund or an infinitive as a subject.

Incorrect Example: Finding the program not to our liking. (The phrase "Finding the program" is the subject because "finding" is a gerund used as a noun. You therefore need a predicate to complete the sentence.)
Correct Example: Finding the program not to our liking, we decided to withdraw. (In this correct sentence, "we" is the subject and "decided" is the verb. The original phrase is used as an "absolute phrase" because it modified the rest of the sentence.)
Incorrect Example: To live on the wild side. (The phrase "To live" is an infinitive and the subject of the sentence. Infinitives serve as nouns in a sentence. The sentence has no verb--no predicate.)
Correct Example: To live on the wild side is a dream of some free spirits in our class. (In this sentence "To live" is a noun and the subject of the sentence because it is an infinitive. The verb of the sentence is "is.")

Sometimes a sentence may be labeled as "awkward," because it does not fit either of these common problem areas.

Incorrect Example It seemed as though her heart was taken and shoved into a pocket of a pair of worn tattered old blue jeans that are on the floor of a careless heartless and confused little boy in a grown man's body later to be discovered in the laundry and tossed aside like spare change that someone may need someday. (This sentence, taken from a student's paper, has so many problems that an easy suggestion like a comma splice or fused sentence cannot adequately help it. In such cases, only massive rewriting can be effective.)

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Transitional Phrases

Transitional phrases are used to move from sentence to sentence in paragraphs and to move from paragraph to paragraph within a piece of written. Using the appropriate transitional phrase allows your writing to have coherence and logical development.

Common Transitional Phrases

To Show Addition
and, also, besides, further, furthermore, in addition, moreover, next,
too, first, second

To Give Examples
for example, for instance, to illustrate, in fact, specifically

To Compare
also, in the same manner, similarly, likewise

To Contrast
but, however, on the other hand, in contrast, nevertheless, still,
even though, on the contrary, yet, although

To Summarize or Conclude
in other words, in short, in summary, in conclusion, to sum up, that is, therefore

To Show Time
after, as, before, next, during, later, finally, meanwhile, then,
while, immediately, at the same time

To Show Place or Direction
above, below, beyond, farther on, nearby, opposite, close, to the left/right

To Indicate Logical Relationship
if, so, therefore, consequently, thus, as a result, for this reason, since

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Tense

Tenses indicate the time of an action in relation to the time you are writing about the action. When picking the right form of the verb, it is important to be consistent in number--whether you are using the singular form--one person or thing--or plural-- more than one person or thing. One of the most important things to be aware of when looking at tense in writing is to maintain parallel structure, and not shift your tense. For example, you can't suddenly shift from past tense to present, nor can you shift from singular to plural.

Incorrect Example: There was no way I could fight (past tense) the current and win. Just as I was losing hope (past), a stranger jumps (present) off a passing boat and swims (present) toward me. (The change from present to past tense means you have a tense shift. This is also a lack of parallel structure.)
Correct Example: There was no way I could fight the current and win. Just as I was losing hope, a stranger jumped off a passing boat and swam toward me. (All of the verbs are in the past tense, so you do not have a tense shift. In addition, you are writing in parallel structure.)
Incorrect Example: High levels (plural) of pollution causes (singular verb) damage to the respiratory tract.
Correct Example: High levels of pollution cause damage to the respiratory tract.

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Point of View

First Person--utilizes the subject pronouns I and we. The information or story is told from the writer's perspective.
Example: I walked to the store and purchased some milk and eggs.
Second Person--utilizes the subject pronoun you. This is not frequently used in writing. The most common use is in commands or directions.
Example: You need to walk to the store to purchase milk and eggs.

Another form of writing that uses the second person is called the imperative. In this, the subject pronoun is implied and it is automatically considered to be in the active voice.
Example: Go to the store to get milk and eggs.
Third Person--utilizes the subject pronouns he, she and they. The writer is not a participant in the action.
Example: He walked to the store and purchased milk and eggs.

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Important Concepts

Voice

The active voice is generally considered superior than the passive voice because it is more direct and concise. In the active voice, the subject of the sentence is doing the action; in the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the recipient of the action. You can use three easy steps to determine if your sentence is in the active voice:

Find the subject of the sentence.

Find the verb.

Ask yourself if the subject can do the action stated by the verb.
If the answer is yes, then the sentence is active.

Active Voice Example: The cat caught the mouse. (five words)

Passive Voice Example: The mouse was caught by the cat. (seven words)

Passive Voice Example: There was a cat that caught a mouse. (eight words)

In this sentence, the phrase "there was" is an "expletive" and has no real purpose in the sentence other than to "set up" your sentence and get you started writing. "There" is an adverb that means "in that place." Constructions like "There is/there are" and "It is" are an immediate sign you are writing in the passive voice!

Writing in the active voice has NOTHING to do with tense! You can write in the past, present or future tense and still be in the active voice. (Or in the passive voice, for that matter.)

A problem with the passive voice is because the subject is not the "actor" in the sentence, you can often leave out the "actor" and still be grammatically correct. We are conditioned to want the subject to be doing the action and also to want to know who or what is doing the action:

Passive Voice Example: The form should be filled out by the applicant.

Passive Voice Example: The form should be filled out. (Although in the passive voice, this is grammatically complete, even though you do not know who should be filling out the form.)

Active Voice Example: The applicant should fill out the form.

Why Care About the Active Voice?

The active voice always uses fewer words than the passive voice. Thus, it is more concise!

People talk in the active voice when they communicate face to face. Thus, the active voice is more natural.

The active voice never leaves the "doer" out of the sentence.
The active voice is what we logically expect when we communicate; we want the subject to come before the verb!
It is more direct and to the point. It does not "back into" your thoughts.

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Parallel Structure

Click Here for a Power Point Lesson on Parallel Structure

Parallel structure means that every part of your writing is the same grammatically . In sentences you need to have parallel structure in all of your clauses and all items in a series. Your writing also has to have parallel structure from sentence to sentence. Here are some clues to checking for parallel structure:

See if the verbs are used the same way throughout the sentence. If they are not in the same grammatically format, you have to rewrite it in parallel structure.
Lack of Parallel Structure: The director told the staff they should collect the material, start working on it promptly, and that the original provisions would apply. Each of of verbs in this series is in a different grammatical form, making it hard for the reader to move from point to point.
Parallel Structure: The director told the staff to collect the material, work on it promptly, and apply the original provisions. Each of the verbs in this series is in the imperative form of the verb, making it easy for the reader to move from point to point.
If you are listing a series of nouns, keep them that way. Conversely, if you are using a series of verbs, each item should be a verb.
Lack of Parallel Structure: Esperanza is responsible for sales (noun) of computers, stocking merchandise (-ing verb) and writing orders (-ing verb).
Parallel Structure: Esperanza is responsible for selling computers, stocking merchandise and writing orders.
You can't shift point-of-view in a sentence.
Lack of Parallel Structure: AIDS is a sexually-transmitted disease (third person), or you can contract the disease by having a tainted blood transfusion (second person).
Parallel Structure: You can contract AIDS by having sex with an infected partner or through a tainted blood transfusion. All of the sentence is in the second person.
Parallel Structure: AIDS is a disease that can be transmitted sexually or through tainted blood transfusions. All of the sentence is in the third person.
Check to see if you have parallel structure in your tense, explained in this web page.

When writing in parallel structure, it often does not matter which way you edit your writing (for example, all in the third person, or all using imperative verbs. What matters is that each part of your sentence and sentences is grammatically comparable.

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That and Which: Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

A restrictive clause is essential for the meaning of the sentence; the sentence would be drastically affected if the clause were not there. A restrictive clause begins with the word "that" and is not set off with commas.
Example: I own an object that I love, because it reminds me of someone very special.
In this sentence, the concept that you love the object is essential to the sentence: it is why you are writing about the object.
A non-restrictive clause is not essential for the meaning of the sentence. You can use the information from a non-restrictive clause in another sentence in your essay without drastically affecting your meaning. A nonrestrictive clause begins with the word "which" and is set off by commas.
Example: The Pandora's box, which sits on my bathroom counter top, is one of the most
romantic things my boyfriend has ever given me.

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Who and Whom

Who is used for the subject of a sentence or clause: "who" is doing the action.
Whom is used for the object of a sentence or clause: "whom " is receiving the action.
- A quick test for "who" or "whom" is to try to substitute the words "she" or "her" (or, of course, "he" or "him" for a male). If you could use she, then use who. If you could use her, then use whom.
  
  Example: Who is responsible for this class? She or he is responsible--therefore use who.
  Example: Whom did the class select? The class selected him or her--therefore use whom.

Numbers

Write out numbers one to nine. Use numerals for numbers 10 and over.
Example: Mary ate nine pieces of chocolate, but John ate 15 pieces.
Use a numeral and a dollar sign when writing dollar amounts.
Example: We won $400 in the New York State Lottery.
Use numerals for times, along with a.m. and p.m. (lower case, with periods).
Wrong example: The man will pull the winning numbers at ten o'clock at night.
Correct Example: The man will pull the winning numbers at 10 p.m.

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Punctuation:

Commas and periods always go inside the quotation marks.
Example: Mary and I read the poem, "Jabberwocky."
Example: After Mary and I read the poem "Jabberwocky," we agreed it was quite imaginative.
Other punctuation will go inside the quotation marks if you are writing a title. If not, it should go outside. (See below.)
Example: One of Edward Albee's greatest plays is Whose Afraid of Virginia Woolf?
Example: Do you think you would like to eat something called "crudites"?
If you are using direct quotations, all punctuation goes inside the quotation marks.
Example: Mary asked her sister, "Do you want to do to the casino tonight?"
When you have a "quote within a quote," use a single quotation mark, as well as a double quotation mark for the larger quote. You still keep the punctuation inside the quote marks.
Example: The speaker said, "An entire era of American expansion and rugged individualism can be exemplified by John Lane Soule's famous quote, 'Go West, young man!'"
Parenthetical, descriptive facts or phrases are always set off by commas.
Example: Mary Smith, 18, of Tully, would like to be a doctor.
Similarly, appositives, phrases that describe nouns or pronouns, are also set off by commas.
Example: Mary Smith, a student who wants to become a doctor, began her education at SUNY Oswego. (The phrase, a student who wants to become a doctor, is an appositive.
Hyphens are used for compound adjectives, when two words modify a third word.
Example: A blue-eyed girl... Low-income housing... Top-rated movie...
Dashes are used to emphasize parenthetical phrases and are considered more dramatic and conversational than parenthesis or commas. They are always two hyphens, with no spaces on either side.
Example: Margaret won a sizable amount--$27,000--at the casino the other day.
Colons are used to present a list or to introduce material that provides a direct example for the preceding clause.
Example: I have five favorite movies: Sophie's Choice, Gandhi, Titanic, Schindler's List and Cross Creek.
Example: Mark just won the prize of his dreams: $1 million a year for life.

You may use a dash instead of a colon to be more informal and dramatic. Dashes are two hyphens, with no spaces on either side:
Example: Mark just won the prize of his dreams--$1 million a year for life.
Semi-colons have only two acceptable uses. The first is to link two independent clauses that are connected in thought. Remember, one cannot be a dependent clause.
Example: Mary ate the pie; Tanya ate the cake.
Example: To give a good party, you must also consider the lighting; no one feels comfortable under the bright glare of fluorescent bulbs.
Incorrect Example: Mary ate the pie; Tanya eating the cake. The second clause cannot stand on its own, since it is a fragment. Therefore, you cannot use a semi-colon to connect it to the previous thought.

Keep in mind that you could also use a comma and a conjunction in place of the semi-colon:
Example: Mary ate the pie, while Tanya ate the cake.
Example: To give a good party, you must also consider the lighting, since no one feels comfortable under the bright glare of fluorescent bulbs.

The second acceptable use is to separate items in a series that have commas themselves.
Correct Example: My favorite movies are Schindler's List, directed by Steven Spielberg; Titanic, directed by James Cameron; and Gandhi, directed by Richard Attenborough.

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Titles

The first time you refer to an organization or something with a name that can be abbreviated, write it out completely and put the acronym in parenthesis. From then on you can use the acronym.
Example: We attend Onondaga Community College (OCC).
Titles of books, plays and films and names of magazines and newspapers are underlined.
Titles of newspaper and magazine articles, poems, short stories, songs, episodes of television and radio programs and chapters or subdivisions of books are put in quotations. Example: The reviewer from Newsweek hated Celine Dion's song, "My Heart Will Go On."
A person's title before the name is always capitalized, while it is kept lowercase after the name.
Example: AIDS Task Force Director John Brown said... John Brown, director of the AIDS Task Force, said...

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Names

The first time you refer to a person, use the person's full name and title, if applicable. (See style rules for titles immediately above.)
Example: AIDS Task Force Director John Brown said the annual AIDS Walk-Run was a great success.
For second and subsequent references, use only the person's last name.
Example: Brown said the fundraising event earned the organization $175,000.
For second and subsequent references to children, it is appropriate to use their first names. An exception might be a teenaged child involved in a crime. For human interest stories, certainly use the first name.
Example: Nyseha Green was the first-place winner in this year's Syracuse Newspapers Spelling Bee. Nyseha, 10, won for correctly spelling the word, "ennui."

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Miscellaneous

Problem Word Usage:

It is a lot, not alot.
It is all right, not alright.
Assure, ensure and insure have different meanings. Assure means to "convince" or "promise." Its direct object in a sentence is usually a person, or persons. Ensure and insure both mean "to make certain," and many experts believe they are interchangeable. However, according to Associated Press style, to insure is to issue an insurance policy. To please style purists, make the distinction. Use insure when you want to express the sense of protection against some form of financial loss.
Example: She assured voters she would not raise taxes.
Example: When the city rationed water to ensure that the supply would last, the Browns could no longer afford to insure their car-wash business.
Avoid starting sentences with "But," "Like...," "Which," "Whereas" and similar words. These are generally used to start dependent clauses and, therefore, indicate that the sentence you are writing is probably a fragment. (See Grammar Guide)
Do not use etc... It is just a lazy way of explaining additional ideas without making the effort to think out your writing.
Wrong Example: At Darien Lake, my friends and I went on the Mind Eraser, Boomerang, Viper, Predator, Pirate Ship, etc...
Corrected Example: At Darien Lake, my friends and I went on the Mind Eraser, Boomerang, Viper, Predator, Pirate Ship, and a number of other rides.
Get/Have are not interchangeable. Get means to "acquire" or "to come to have possession of." Have means "to hold in one's possession."
Wrong Example: They got great CDs in the new store at Carousel Center.
Corrected Example: They have great CDs in the new store at Carousel Center.

Its is the possessive form; It's is the contraction for "it is."
Do not start a sentence with "me." Me is used for direct objects, not subjects, despite its common, incorrect usage as such. Always list yourself second.
Wrong Example: Me and my friends had a great time the day we traveled to Darien Lake.
Corrected Example: My friends and I had a great time the day we traveled to Darien Lake. My best friend won a big stuffed animal that he gave to me.
That/Which--That is used for restrictive clauses and is not set off by commas. "Restrictive" (sometimes called essential) means that the intent of the sentence would drastically change if the phrase is omitted.
Example: The grant fund was designed for programs that treat adolescent substance abusers. (The information about adolescent substance abusers is a restrictive clause.)
That/Which--Which is used for nonrestrictive clauses and is set off by commas. "Nonrestrictive" means that the intent of the sentence would not drastically change if the phrase were left out or placed in a separate sentence.
Example: The program, which was started in 1984, has successfully treated about 91 percent of its clients each year. (the year the program started can be moved to another sentence, if necessary, and is therefore considered a nonrestrictive clause.)f the phrase were left out or placed in a separate sentence.
Their, There and They're are not the same!
Avoid starting sentences with "There is" or "There are." These indicate you are writing in the passive voice, which is a no-no! (See Grammar Guide)
Who/That--When referring to people it is always who, not that.
It is would have, not would of.
Wrong Example: She would of met me at the movie, but she missed the bus.
Corrected Example: She would have met me at the movie, but she missed the bus.

For an extensive list of word usage errors, you can go to: http://www.wsu.edu/~brians/errors

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Quotes

Direct quotations of a person's words must be in quotation marks, whether you are taking an entire passage, a complete sentence or just a few words.

Complete quotation: "The play is a mind-numbingly boring evening of silly, escapist humor," the critic said of the opening night performance. (Full quotes are always set off by a comma.)
Partial quotation: The critic said the play is "silly" and "mind-numbingly boring." (Colorful and dramatic words from a larger quote can effectively spice up your writing. You must use quotation marks, but you do not set them off by commas.)

Special note: If you are quoting someone's exact words in a direct quote and the speaker used the first person point of view, you must also.

Incorrect example: Mary said she is attending OCC because "she wants to go to a cheap school that is close to home."
Correct example: Mary said, "I am attending OCC because I want to go to a cheap school that is close to home."

Indirect quotations or paraphrases tell someone's statements without using his or her exact words.

Example: Mary told the class that she is attending this college because it is inexpensive and within easy driving distance.

In dialogue, begin a new paragraph to introduce a new speaker.

If a single speaker says more than one paragraph, introduce each paragraph with quotation marks, but do not close the quotation until the end of the last paragraph.

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Style Guide

Proofreading Symbols You Should Memorize:

ak--awkward wording, used in cases when notations of comma splice, fused sentence or other problems is not accurate. Generally, this results from a poor use of English syntax, a lack of fluidness in writing and an unfamiliarity with word placement and sentence construction.
cn--collective noun. Words like "organization," "committee," "group," "government," "department," "company" and others are grammatically singular, even though they refer to more than one person.
cs--comma splice. This is when the writer inserts a comma between two complete sentences. Usually a period would be more appropriate, although occasionally a semi-colon may be effective.
cx--complex sentence. A complex sentence is an independent clause and a dependent clause with a comma between them. It's up to you to determine the proper placement of the comma.
fg--sentence fragment. The sentence is missing either the subject or predicate.
fs--fused sentence. This is when the writer combines two complete sentences without any punctuation. This could also be called a "run-on" sentence. Usually a period is needed, although occasionally a semi-colon may be effective.
ip--indefinite pronoun. Words like "someone," "anyone," "somebody" and "anybody" are grammatically singular, even though their meaning may be more encompassing.
np--needs punctuation. In this case, it may not just be that you have written a complex sentence that needs only a comma between the dependent and independent clauses. You should review your entire sentence's punctuation. For example, you might need to set off an appositive, an introductory phrase or a prepositional phrase.
nas--not a sentence. Sometimes it may be hard to identify a sentence problem as either a fused sentence or a comma splice. If you see this, you should totally rethink and rewrite your sentence.
ns--number shift. Your verb has to agree with your subject in terms of being singular or plural.
pl--plural. This is usually coupled with a shift between singular and plural. This may happen when you have an indefinite pronoun or collective noun, which are singular, and a plural pronoun in the same sentence. (See ns.)
//--parallel structure. This means that you need to use parallel structure in your writing. Parallel structure is writing in the same grammatical format in each part of your sentence.
run-on. Sometimes your sentence might not fit the easily-explained definition of either a fused sentence or comma splice. In these cases, I will fall back on the old description probably used in your high school: a "run-on." More than likely, it has to be broken up into two or more sentences, with appropriate punctuation put in all sentences.
s--singular. This is usually coupled with a shift between singular and plural. This may happen when you have an indefinite pronoun or collective noun, which are singular, and a plural pronoun in the same sentence.
sp--spelling. These frequent mistakes can result from a failure to proofread. You are responsible for looking up the correct spelling.
st--style. Style refers to the non-grammatical, non-organizational elements of your essay--usually the "fine points" of the way writing looks. It can involve proper capitalization, underlining, time, addresses, abbreviations and other elements. Generally, I will be using the Modern Language Association (MLA) style rules, which differ from the Associated Press style rules that reporters use.
ts--tense shift. This can be either a shift between singular and plural or a shift between past, present or future tenses. In these cases, it is best to look at your subject and read your sentence to make sure that all verbs, pronouns and objects are consistent.

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Page Format:

All papers will utilize the format suggested by the Modern Language Association (MLA), which is the standard followed by all courses at Onondaga Community College.

BASIC FORMAT:

Use standard sized paper, 8½ X 11 inches.
All margins (top, bottom, and sides) should be one inch wide.
Type the paper double-spaced.
Do not justify the right margin.
Indent the first line of each paragraph five spaces.

PAGE FORMAT:

There is no separate title page. On the first page, beginning in the upper left corner, at the margin and one inch from the top of the page, type the name and course information double spaced. Double space after the date. Type the title (if any), centered, upper and lower case letters, no quotation marks. Double space, then begin the text of the paper. A sample page follows:

Your name

Your professor's name

Course title and number

Date

A Sample Research for English 103

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Number each subsequent page in the upper right corner, ½ inch from the top of the page. Include your last name before the number.

Saiz-2

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For a highly detailed, on-line writing and grammar guide go to a website developed by Professor Charles Darling of Capital Community-Technical College in Hartford, Conn.:

http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/

Another newer site is the "Learn Stuff" guide to grammar and writing:

http://www.learnstuff.com/guide-to-learning-english/

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